Today, the five most common government systems include democracy, republic, monarchy, communism and . This provides wide opportunity for governments to experiment, to chart a course independent of Western preferences, but it can also encourage them to move toward authoritarian, state capitalist policies when that is the necessary or the expedient thing to do. In light of this discussion of types of inclusion, the implications for dealing with state fragility and building greater resilience can now be spelled out. Space opened up for African citizens and civil society movements, while incumbent regimes were no longer able to rely on assured support from erstwhile external partners. Government and the Political System 2.1. Ousted royals such as Haile Selassie (Ethiopia) and King Idriss (Libya) may be replaced by self-anointed secular rulers who behave as if they were kings until they, in turn, get overthrown. For example, the electoral college forces a republic type of voting system. The formal institutions of checks and balances and accountability of leaders to the population are rather weak in this system. Features of Yoruba Pre colonial Administration - Bscholarly The balance of power between official and non-official actors will likely shift, as networked activists assert their ability to organize and take to the streets on behalf of diverse causes. The earliest known recorded history arose in Ancient Egypt . Countries such as Burkina Faso, Guinea, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, for example, attempted to strip chiefs of most of their authority or even abolish chieftaincy altogether. Rather, they often rely on voluntary compliance, although they also apply some soft power to discourage noncompliance by members with customary laws. The key lies in identifying the variables that will shape its context. What policies and laws will determine relations between farmers and urban dwellers, between farmers and herders, between diverse identity groups living in close proximity or encroaching on each others farm land, and between public officials, criminal networks and ordinary citizens? However, there are customs and various arrangements that restrain their power. Paramount chiefs with rather weak system of accountability: The Buganda of Uganda and the Nupe in Nigeria are good examples. Constitutions of postcolonial states have further limited the power of chiefs. If a critical mass of the leaderse.g., South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, Cote dIvoire, Algeria, Egyptare heading in a positive direction, they will pull some others along in their wake; of course, the reverse is also true. A partial explanation as to why the traditional systems endure was given in the section Why African Traditional Institutions Endure. The argument in that section was that they endure primarily because they are compatible with traditional economic systems, under which large segments of the African population still operate. They are already governing much of rural Africa. In many cases European or Islamic legal traditions have replaced or significantly modified traditional African ones. The institution of traditional leadership in Africa pre-existed both the colonial and apartheid systems and was the only known system of governance among indigenous people. Subsequent to the colonial experience, traditional institutions may be considered to be informal institutions in the sense that they are often not sanctioned by the state. The express prohibition in the African Charter against discrimination according to ethnic group constitutes a major step for the continent as a whole because the realization of this right will lead to greater economic opportunity for those people not of the same kinship as the head of government. As a result, it becomes highly complex to analyze their roles and structures without specifying the time frame. The customary structures of governance of traditional leadership were put aside or transformed. It seems clear that Africas conflict burden declined steadily after the mid-1990s through the mid-2000s owing to successful peace processes outstripping the outbreak of new conflicts; but the burden has been spiking up again since then. A related reason for their relevance is that traditional institutions, unlike the state, provide rural communities the platform to participate directly in their own governance. The point here is that peer pressure, examples, and precedents are especially important in a region of 54 states, many of them dependent on satisfactory relations with their neighbors. In traditional African communities, it was not possible to distinguish between religious and non-religious areas of life. Overturning regimes in Africas often fragile states could become easier to do, without necessarily leading to better governance. Such adjustments, however, may require contextualization of the institutions of democracy by adjusting these institutions to reflect African realities. Chiefs with limited power: Another category of chiefs is those that are hereditary, like the paramount chiefs, but have limited powers. Thus, despite abolition efforts by postcolonial states and the arguments against the traditional institutions in the literature, the systems endure and remain rather indispensable for the communities in traditional economic systems. In the postcolonial era, their roles changed again. Ehret 2002 emphasizes the diversity and long history of precolonial social and political formations, whereas Curtin, et al. As institutional scholars state, institutional incompatibility leads to societal conflicts by projecting different laws governing societal interactions (Eisenstadt, 1968; Helmke & Levitsky, 2004; March & Olsen, 1984; North, 1990; Olsen, 2007). Click here to get an answer to your question Discuss any similarities between the key features of the fourth republican democracy and the traditional afri While traditional institutions remain indispensable for the communities operating under traditional economic systems, they also represent institutional fragmentation, although the underlying factor for fragmentation is the prevailing dichotomy of economic systems. Africa: Laws and Legal Systems - Geography Extensive survey research is required to estimate the size of adherents to traditional institutions. Broadly speaking, indigenous systems of governance are those that were practiced by local populations in pre-colonial times. A third, less often recognized base of legitimacy can be called conventional African diplomatic legitimacy wherein a governmenthowever imperfectly establishedis no more imperfect than the standard established by its regional neighbors. To sum up, traditional institutions provide vital governance services to communities that operate under traditional socioeconomic spaces. The same source concluded that 7 out of the 12 worst scores for political rights and civil liberties are African.11 As noted, the reasons vary: patrimonialism gone wrong (the big man problem), extreme state fragility and endemic conflict risks, the perverse mobilization of ethnicity by weak or threatened leaders. Others choose the traditional institutions, for example, in settling disputes because of lower transactional costs. Another reason is that African leaders of the postcolonial state, who wanted to consolidate their power, did not want other points of power that would compromise their control. Additionally, inequalities between parallel socioeconomic spaces, especially with respect to influence on policy, hinder a democratic system, which requires equitable representation and inclusive participation. Gadaa as an Alternative Understanding of Democracy in Africa Political leaders everywhere face competing demands in this regard. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. The Constitution states that the institution, status and roles of traditional leadership, according to customary law, are recognised. Against this backdrop, where is African governance headed? This enhanced his authority. Similarly, the process of conflict resolution is undertaken in an open assembly and is intended to reconcile parties in conflict rather than to merely punish offenders. History. These consisted of monarchy, aristocracy and polity. One-sided violence against unarmed civilians has also spiked up since 2011.4, These numbers require three major points of clarification. Another issue that needs some clarification is the neglect by the literature of the traditional institutions of the political systems without centralized authority structures. The traditional Africa system of government is open and inclusive, where strangers, foreigners and even slaves could participate in the decision-making process. Types of government practiced in Nigeria, from monarchy to democracy Traditional governments have the following functions; Governance also has an important regional dimension relating to the institutional structures and norms that guide a regions approach to challenges and that help shape its political culture.1 This is especially relevant in looking at Africas place in the emerging world since this large region consists of 54 statesclose to 25% of the U.N.s membershipand includes the largest number of landlocked states of any region, factors that dramatically affect the political environment in which leaders make choices. Democracy and Consensus in African Traditional Politics: a Plea - Jstor 20 A brief account of that history will help to highlight key continuities spanning the colonial, apartheid and the post-apartheid eras in relation to the place of customary law and the role of traditional leaders. 15 Facts on African Religions The Interfaith Observer The leader is accountable to various levels of elders, who serve as legislators and as judges (Legesse, 1973; Taa, 2017). Beyond such macro factors, several less obvious variables seem important to the political and economic governance future of the region. Unlike the laws of the state, traditional institutions rarely have the coercive powers to enforce their customary laws. Almost at a stroke, the relationships between African governments and the major powers and major sources of concessional finance were upended, while political liberalization in the former Soviet bloc helped to trigger global political shock waves. A Functional Approach to define Government 2. Afrocentrism, also called Africentrism, cultural and political movement whose mainly African American adherents regard themselves and all other Blacks as syncretic Africans and believe that their worldview should positively reflect traditional African values. However, the traditional judicial system has some weaknesses, especially with respect to gender equality. The third section deals with the post-colonial period and discusses some problems associated with African administration. It considers the nature of the state in sub-Saharan Africa and why its state structures are generally weaker than elsewhere in the world. Legal norms are an integral part of the discussion about inclusivity since they affect every aspect of economic and personal life; this poses a critical question over whether individual rights or group rights take precedence in the normative hierarchy. The analysis presented here suggests that traditional institutions are relevant in a number of areas while they are indispensable for the governance of Africas traditional economic sector, which lies on the fringes of formal state institutions. Leaders may not be the only ones who support this definition of legitimacy. Paramount chieftaincy as a system of local government Features/Characteristics Of Government - 2022 - StopLearn For example, the election day itself goes more or less peacefully, the vote tabulation process is opaque or obscure, and the entire process is shaped by a pre-election playing field skewed decisively in favor of the incumbents. First, many of the conflicts enumerated take place within a limited number of conflict-affected countries and in clearly-defined geographic zones (the Sahel and Nigeria; Central Africa; and the Horn.) Although considerable differences exist among the various systems, opportunities for women to participate in decision making in most traditional systems are generally limited. An election bound to be held in the year 2019 will unveil the new . There are several types of government that are traditionally instituted around the world. Both types of government can be effective or infective depending on . There was a lot of consultation between the elders before any major decision was made. A strict democracy would enforce the "popular vote" total over the entire United States. Less than 20% of Africas states achieved statehood following rebellion or armed insurgency; in the others, independence flowed from peaceful transfers of authority from colonial officials to African political elites. When a seemingly brittle regime reaches the end of its life, it becomes clear that the state-society gap is really a regime-society gap; the state withers and its institutions become hollow shells that serve mainly to extract rents. As a result, customary law, which often is not recognized by the state or is recognized only when it does not contradict the constitution, does not protect communities from possible transgressions by the state. In other words, the transition from traditional modes of production to a capitalist economic system has advanced more in some countries than in others. With the exceptions of a few works, such as Legesse (1973), the institutions of the decentralized political systems, which are often elder-based with group leadership, have received little attention, even though these systems are widespread and have the institutions of judicial systems and mechanisms of conflict resolution and allocation of resources, like the institutions of the centralized systems. On the one hand, they recognize the need for strong, responsive state institutions; weak, fragile states do not lead to good governance. Based on existing evidence, the authority systems in postcolonial Africa lie in a continuum between two polar points. The nature of governance is central because it determines whether the exercise of authority is viewed as legitimate. With the dawn of colonialism in Africa, the traditional African government was sys-tematically weakened, and the strong and influential bond between traditional lead- . There are very few similarities between democracy and dictatorship. The colonial state, for example, invented chiefs where there were no centralized authority systems and imposed them on the decentralized traditional systems, as among the Ibo of Eastern Nigeria, the Tonga in Zambia, various communities in Kenya, and the communities in Somalia. Traditional leaders would also be able to use local governance as a platform for exerting some influence on national policymaking. Indications are, however, that the more centralized the system is, the lower the accountability and popular participation in decision making. Somalilands strategy has brought traditional leaders into an active role in the countrys formal governance by creating an upper house in parliament, the Guurti, where traditional leaders exercise the power of approving all bills drafted by the lower house of parliament. Communities like the Abagusii, Ameru, Akamba, Mijikenda, and Agikuyu in Kenya had this system of government. Despite apparent differences, the strategies of the three countries have some common features as well that may inform other counties about the measures institutional reconciliation may entail. This point links the reader to the other Africa chapters that have been prepared for this project. Stated another way, if the abolition of term limits, neo-patrimonialism, and official kleptocracy become a regionally accepted norm, this will make it harder for the better governed states to resist the authoritarian trend. Some regimes seem resilient because of their apparent staying power but actually have a narrow base of (typically ethnic or regional) support. As a result, they are not dispensable as long as the traditional economic systems endure. Maintenance of law and order: the primary and most important function of the government is to maintain law and order in a state. example of a traditional African political system. They dispense justice, resolve conflicts, and enforce contracts, even though such services are conducted in different ways in different authority systems. PDF Traditional Systems of Communication in Nigeria Most African countries are characterized by parallel institutions, one representing the formal laws of the state and the other representing the traditional institutions that are adhered to more commonly in rural areas. Security challenges can impose tough choices on governments that may act in ways that compound the problem, opening the door to heightened risks of corruption and the slippery slope of working with criminal entities. Yet, the traditional judicial system in most cases operates outside of the states institutional framework. The movement towards a formal state system is characterized by its emphasis on retribution and punishment. Others contend that African countries need to follow a mixed institutional system incorporating the traditional and formal systems (Sklar, 2003). Beyond the traditional sector, traditional institutions also have important attributes that can benefit formal institutions. You cant impose middle class values on a pre-industrial society.13. African states, along with Asian, Middle Eastern, and even European governments, have all been affected. PDF The Local Government System in Ghana - Clgf The third section looks at the critical role of political and economic inclusion in shaping peace and stability and points to some of the primary challenges leaders face in deciding how to manage inclusion: whom to include and how to pay for it. African political elites are more determined than ever to shape their own destiny, and they are doing so. Keywords: Legal Pluralism, African Customary Law, Traditional Leadership, Chieftaincy, Formal Legal System Relationship With, Human Rights, Traditional Norms, Suggested Citation:
Nonhereditary selected leaders with constitutional power: A good example of this is the Gada system of the Oromo in Ethiopia and Kenya. Another common feature is the involvement of traditional authorities in the governance process, at least at the local level. African Political Systems is an academic anthology edited by the anthropologists Meyer Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard which was published by Oxford University Press on the behalf of the International African Institute in 1940. A third argument claims that chieftaincy heightens primordial loyalties, as chiefs constitute the foci of ethnic identities (Simwinga quoted in van Binsberger, 1987, p. 156). African Politics: A Very Short Introduction explores how politics is practised on the African continent, providing an overview of the different states and their systems. It is unlikely, however, that such harmony can be brought about by measures that aim to abolish the traditional system, as was attempted by some countries in the aftermath of decolonization. In addition, resolution needs to be acceptable to all parties. Finally, the chapter considers the future of the institution against the background of the many issues and challenges considered. The Sultanes of Somalia are examples of this category and the community has specific criteria as to who is qualified to be a chief (Ahmed, 2017). They include: Monarchs (absolute or constitutional): While the colonial state reduced most African kings to chiefs, a few survived as monarchs. PDF Structure of Government - EOLSS In this regard, the president is both the head of state and government, and there are three arms and tiers of rules by which the country is ruled. Africa contains more sovereign nations than any other continent, with 54 countries compared to Asia's 47. According to the African Development Bank, good governance should be built on a foundation of (I) effective states, (ii) mobilized civil societies, and (iii) an efficient private sector. The endurance of traditional institutions entails complex and paradoxical implications for contemporary Africas governance. The participatory and consensus-based system of conflict resolution can also govern inter-party politics and curtail the frequent post-election conflicts that erupt in many African countries. This proposal will be subject to a referendum on the constitutional changes required.16.2e 2.4 Traditional leadership Traditional leaders are accorded Due to the influence of previous South African and Nigerian leaders, the African Union established the African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) to review and report on a range of governance criteria. Government as a Structural Element of Society 2.2. The fourth part draws a conclusion with a tentative proposal on how the traditional institutions might be reconciled with the formal institutions to address the problem of institutional incoherence. Analysis here is thus limited to traditional authority systems under the postcolonial experience. Freedom House calculated that 17 out of 50 countries it covered were free or partly free in 1988, compared to 31 out of 54 countries in these categories by 2015. Since institutional fragmentation is a major obstacle to nation-building and democratization, it is imperative that African countries address it and forge institutional harmony. Suggested Citation, 33 West 60th StreetNew York, NY 10023United States, Public International Law: Sources eJournal, Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic, Political Institutions: Parties, Interest Groups & Other Political Organizations eJournal, Political Institutions: Legislatures eJournal, We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. A long-term route to political and economic success has been comprehensively documented by Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson in their global study of why nations fail or succeed. Indigenous African Education - 2392 Words | Studymode Judicial marginalization: Another challenge posed by institutional fragmentation relates to marginalization of the traditional system within the formal legal system. Both can be identified as forms of governance. Good and inclusive governance is imperative for Africa's future Poor statesociety relations and weak state legitimacy: Another critical outcome of institutional fragmentation and institutional detachment of the state from the overwhelming majority of the population is weak legitimacy of the state (Englebert, 2000). Integration of traditional and modern governance systems in Africa. Large states and those with complex ethnic and geographic featurese.g., the DRC, Nigeria, Uganda, the Sudans, Ethiopiamay be especially prone to such multi-sourced violence. But it also reflects the impact of Arab, Russian, Chinese, Indian, European and U.S. vectors of influence which project their differences into African societies. Different property rights laws are a notable source of conflict in many African countries. A key factor in the size of adherents of rural institutions, however, seems to depend on the ratio of the population in the traditional economic systems to the total population. Tribe Versus Ethnic Group. African Governance: Challenges and Their Implications A second attribute is the participatory decision-making system. Throughout our over one-hundred-year history, our work has directly led to policies that have produced greater freedom, democracy, and opportunity in the United States and the world. 14 L.A. Ayinla 'African Philosophy of Law: A Critique' 151, available at Traditional leadership in South Africa pre-existed both the colonial and apartheid systems of governance and was the main known system of governance amongst indigenous people. Reconciling the parallel institutional systems is also unlikely to deliver the intended results in a short time; however, there may not be any better alternatives. These different economic systems have corresponding institutional systems with divergent property rights laws and resource allocation mechanisms, disparate decision-making systems, and distinct judicial systems and conflict resolution mechanisms. Admittedly, the problem is by no means uniquely African, but it is very commonly experienced in Africa. Afrocentrism | Definition, Examples, History, Beliefs, & Facts In addition, they have traditional institutions of governance of various national entities, including those surrounding the Asantehene of the Ashanti in Ghana and the Kabaka of the Buganda in Uganda. Authority in this system was shared or distributed to more people within the community. Societal conflicts: Institutional dichotomy often entails incompatibility between the systems. This brief essay began by identifying the state-society gap as the central challenge for African governance. Traditional institutions have continued to metamorphose under the postcolonial state, as Africas socioeconomic systems continue to evolve. Understanding the Gadaa System. Chiefs such as those of the Nuer and Dinka are examples of this category. These migrations resulted in part from the formation and disintegration of a series of large states in the western Sudan (the region north of modern Ghana drained by the Niger River). In new countries such as most of those in Africa,7 where the rule of law is in competition with the rule of men, leaders play a strikingly critical role, for good or ill. The Boundaries of Tradition: An Examination of the Traditional References: Blakemore and Cooksey (1980). The Role of Traditional Leaders in Post Independence Countries Botswana One of these will be the role and weight of various powerful external actors.