For the upper limb, all anterior-going motions are flexion and all posterior-going motions are extension. What motions involve increasing or decreasing the angle of the foot at the ankle? A total of 224 injury-free, recreational runners were . Pronation and supination: Anatomy, definition, images | Kenhub excursion meaning: 1. a short journey usually made for pleasure, often by a group of people: 2. a short involvement. excursion - English-Spanish Dictionary - WordReference.com See more. This morning we took a little excursion to the next village. Supination and pronation are the movements of the forearm that go between these two positions. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like What are the 2 joint movement categories?, What are the 19 types of joint movement?, Rotation and more. Rotation can also occur at the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. A fluid-filled nodule called Baker's cyst (caused by accumulated fluids that cannot be reabsorbed) 3. In cases of whiplash in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then forward, a patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical region. joint, in anatomy, a structure that separates two or more adjacent elements of the skeletal system. Medial excursion returns the mandible to its resting position at the midline. Joint means an articulation or in other words, a strong connection that joins the bones, teeth, and cartilage together. Oppositionis the thumb movement that brings the tip of the thumb in contact with the tip of a finger. There is inconsistent evidence regarding the relationship between clinical measurement of 1st MTP joint maximum dorsiflexion and dynamic function of the joint during level walking. { "9.00:_Introduction" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.01:_Classification_of_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.02:_Fibrous_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.03:_Cartilaginous_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.04:_Synovial_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.05:_Types_of_Body_Movements" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.06:_Anatomy_of_Selected_Synovial_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "9.07:_Development_of_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, { "05:_The_Integumentary_System" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "06:_Bone_Tissue_and_the_Skeletal_System" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "07:_Axial_Skeleton" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "08:_The_Appendicular_Skeleton" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "09:_Joints" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "10:_Muscle_Tissue" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()", "11:_The_Muscular_System" : "property get [Map MindTouch.Deki.Logic.ExtensionProcessorQueryProvider+<>c__DisplayClass228_0.b__1]()" }, [ "article:topic", "flexion", "extension", "authorname:openstax", "supination", "supinated position", "superior rotation", "rotation", "retraction", "reposition", "protraction", "pronation", "pronated position", "plantar flexion", "opposition", "medial (internal) rotation", "medial excursion", "lateral (external) rotation", "lateral flexion", "lateral excursion", "inversion", "inferior rotation", "hyperflexion", "hyperextension", "eversion", "elevation", "dorsiflexion", "depression", "circumduction", "adduction", "abduction", "license:ccby", "showtoc:no", "program:openstax", "licenseversion:40", "source@https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology" ], https://med.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fmed.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FAnatomy_and_Physiology%2FBook%253A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_1e_(OpenStax)%2FUnit_2%253A_Support_and_Movement%2F09%253A_Joints%2F9.05%253A_Types_of_Body_Movements, \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}}}\) \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{#1}}} \)\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)\(\newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\), source@https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology, status page at https://status.libretexts.org, Uniaxial joint; allows rotational movement, Atlantoaxial joint (C1C2 vertebrae articulation); proximal radioulnar joint, Uniaxial joint; allows flexion/extension movements, Knee; elbow; ankle; interphalangeal joints of fingers and toes, Biaxial joint; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction movements, Metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints of fingers; radiocarpal joint of wrist; metatarsophalangeal joints for toes, First carpometacarpal joint of the thumb; sternoclavicular joint, Multiaxial joint; allows inversion and eversion of foot, or flexion, extension, and lateral flexion of the vertebral column, Intertarsal joints of foot; superior-inferior articular process articulations between vertebrae, Multiaxial joint; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction, and medial/lateral rotation movements, Define the different types of body movements, Identify the joints that allow for these motions. Learn more. Each of the different structural types of synovial joints also allow for specific motions. Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. These are important motions that help to stabilize the foot when walking or running on an uneven surface and aid in the quick side-to-side changes in direction used during active sports such as basketball, racquetball, or soccer (seeFigure5). In the limbs, flexion decreases the angle between the bones (bending of the joint), while extension increases the angle and straightens the joint. This is a uniaxial joint, and thus rotation is the only motion allowed at a pivot joint. Conversely, rotation of the limb so that the anterior surface moves away from the midline is lateral (external) rotation (see Figure 9.5.1f). A joint excursion monitor device which, when strapped onto a person's leg, can monitor a pre-set limit of joint movement, and when that pre-set limit is reached, generate a signal. In addition, these also allow for medial (internal) and lateral (external) rotation. The upward movement of the scapula and shoulder is elevation, while a downward movement is depression. Similarly, hyperflexion is excessive flexion at a joint. The degree and type of movement that can be produced at a synovial joint is determined by its structural type. Superior rotation is also used without arm abduction when carrying a heavy load with your hand or on your shoulder. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Rotationcan occur within the vertebral column, at a pivot joint, or at a ball-and-socket joint. When the palm of the hand faces backward, the forearm is in the pronated position, and the radius and ulna form an X-shape. An Introduction to the Human Body, Chapter 2. Duringsuperior rotation, the glenoid cavity moves upward as the medial end of the scapular spine moves downward. Circumductionis the movement of a body region in a circular manner, in which one end of the body region being moved stays relatively stationary while the other end describes a circle. (SeeFigure5.). Joints & Types of Body Movements - Study.com Watch this video to learn about anatomical motions. Hyperextension is the abnormal or excessive extension of a joint beyond its normal range of motion, thus resulting in injury. Hyperextension injuries are common at hinge joints such as the knee or elbow. Their performance is compared to that of a Barcelona Olympic and World champion rower with 12 years of experience to illustrate how athletes deviate . Abduction moves the limb laterally away from the midline of the body, while adduction is the opposing movement that brings the limb toward the body or across the midline. excursion n. (outing, trip) excursin nf. At a pivot joint, one bone rotates in relation to another bone. Note that extension of the thigh beyond the anatomical (standing) position is greatly limited by the ligaments that support the hip joint. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. What Is Flexion And Extension Movement? | Swolverine Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. Definition - Excursion - Semiconductor, Definition for joint excursion definition The type of movement that can be produced at a synovial joint is determined by its structural type. adj., adj excursive. Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. Abduction and adduction movements are seen at condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints (see Figure 9.12e). (See Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).j). For the vertebral column, flexion (anterior flexion) is an anterior (forward) bending of the neck or body, while extension involves a posterior-directed motion, such as straightening from a flexed position or bending backward. Spreading the fingers or toes apart is also abduction, while bringing the fingers or toes together is adduction. The Lymphatic and Immune System, Chapter 26. Briefly define the types of joint movements available at a ball-and-socket joint. These movements of the vertebral column involve both the symphysis joint formed by each intervertebral disc, as well as the plane type of synovial joint formed between the inferior articular processes of one vertebra and the superior articular processes of the next lower vertebra. These movements are used to shrug your shoulders. Terms in this set (5) Circumduction. Synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. Joint Stability Vs Joint Mobility & Why They Both Matter Excursion - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms | Vocabulary.com Body Movement Terms - Anatomy Body Planes of Motions Movement at the shoulder joint that moves the upper limb laterally away from the body is called ________. 2. This joint allows for the radius to rotate along its length during pronation and supination movements of the forearm. Functional programming languages support function composition, allowing for complex combinations of functions. A possible explanation for this high rate is an insufficient rehabilitation and/or a premature return to intense exercise and workloads. Supination is the opposite motion, in which rotation of the radius returns the bones to their parallel positions and moves the palm to the anterior facing (supinated) position. Learn the proper technique to measure lateral excursion range of motion for the temporomandibular (TMJ) joint using a ruler. Protraction of the scapula occurs when the shoulder is moved forward, as when pushing against something or throwing a ball. Inferior rotation occurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of the glenoid cavity with upward movement of the medial end of the scapular spine. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. For the upper limb, all anterior-going motions are flexion and all posterior-going motions are extension. It involves the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction at a joint. Here, the humerus and femur rotate around their long axis, which moves the anterior surface of the arm or thigh either toward or away from the midline of the body. These are the only movements available at the ankle joint (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).h). 9.5 Types of Body Movements - Anatomy & Physiology A. Ball-and-socket joints are multiaxial joints that allow for flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, circumduction, and medial and lateral rotation. This is the supinated position of the forearm. They went on a brief excursion to the coast. (looks like person sitting on a saddle) moves in two planes. Retraction is the opposite motion, with the scapula being pulled posteriorly and medially, toward the vertebral column. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. Returning the thumb to its anatomical position next to the index finger is called reposition (see Figure 9.13l). Gait cycle: phases, muscles and joints involved. | Kenhub Creative Commons Attribution License Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. Figure1. This crossing over brings the radius and ulna into an X-shape position. Bump fits into shallow groove. Define the different types of body movements; . Protractionandretractionare anterior-posterior movements of the scapula or mandible. Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (mediallateral) plane of movement. Multiaxial plane joints provide for only small motions, but these can add together over several adjacent joints to produce body movement, such as inversion and eversion of the foot. [Hinge & Pivot] [uniaxial joint] a rounded bone that fits into a groove in another joint. joint excursion definition Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. The shape of a joint depends on its function. Overall, each type of synovial joint is necessary to provide the body with its great flexibility and mobility. Movement types are generally paired, with one being the opposite of the other. Depending on what is causing joint effusion, other symptoms may develop, including: Bruising and bleeding in the joint space (such as caused by an injury) 2. list of baking techniques SU,F's Musings from the Interweb. 9.5: Types of Body Movements - Medicine LibreTexts While the ball-and-socket joint gives the greatest range of movement at an individual joint, in other regions of the body, several joints may work together to produce a particular movement. Percuss over the intercostal space and note the resonance and the feel of percussion. Depending on the type of joint, such separated elements may or may not move on one another. Inversion is the turning of the foot to angle the bottom of the foot toward the midline, while eversion turns the bottom of the foot away from the midline. These movements are used to shrug your shoulders. Knee flexion is the bending of the knee to bring the foot toward the posterior thigh, and extension is the straightening of the knee. Joint excursion, handle velocity, and applied force: a biomechanical Abduction and adduction motions occur within the coronal plane and involve medial-lateral motions of the limbs, fingers, toes, or thumb. The multiaxial ball and socket joints allow for flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and circumduction. eg elbow extension. The atlantoaxial pivot joint provides side-to-side rotation of the head, while the proximal radioulnar articulation allows for rotation of the radius during pronation and supination of the forearm. In cases of whiplash in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then forward, a patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical region. 2. Joint range of motion, tendon excursion and loading force were recorded during individual joint motion and free joint movement from rest to maximal flexion. Pronationis the motion that moves the forearm from the supinated (anatomical) position to the pronated (palm backward) position. Adduction, abduction, and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. Abduction moves the limb laterally away from the midline of the body, while adduction is the opposing movement that brings the limb toward the body or across the midline. Supination and pronation are the movements of the forearm that go between these two positions. Watch this video to learn about anatomical motions. Information and translations of excursion in the most comprehensive dictionary definitions resource on the web. Normal movements of the jaw during function, such as chewing, are known as excursions. Excursion is the side to side movement of the mandible. What is lateral excursion? | News | Dentagama The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. For the thumb, extension moves the thumb away from the palm of the hand, within the same plane as the palm, while flexion brings the thumb back against the index finger or into the palm. Sagittal plane gait characteristics in hip osteoarthritis patients with For example, abduction is raising the arm at the shoulder joint, moving it laterally away from the body, while adduction brings the arm down to the side of the body. Except where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written Spreading the fingers or toes apart is also abduction, while bringing the fingers or toes together is adduction. The multiaxial ball and socket joints allow for flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and circumduction. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Refer to Figure 9.5.1 as you go through this section. Superior and inferior rotation are movements of the scapula and are defined by the direction of movement of the glenoid cavity. When the palm of the hand faces backward, the forearm is in thepronated position, and the radius and ulna form an X-shape. Cards. For example, at the atlantoaxial joint, the first cervical (C1) vertebra (atlas) rotates around the dens, the upward projection from the second cervical (C2) vertebra (axis). Q. EXCURSION | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary Hyperextension injuries are common at hinge joints such as the knee or elbow. At the elbow, the forearm would need to be flexed. Superior and inferior rotation are movements of the scapula and are defined by the direction of movement of the glenoid cavity. Each movement at a synovial joint results from the contraction or relaxation of the muscles that are attached to the bones on either side of the articulation. The upward movement of the scapula and shoulder is elevation, while a downward movement is depression. Protrusion, Retrusion, and Excursion Anatomy Body Movement Terms Flexion, would be the descending motion, decreasing the . The proximal radioulnar joint is a pivot joint that allows for rotation of the head of the radius. Briefly define the types of joint movements available at a ball-and-socket joint. 31 5.1 Angular Position and Displacement - BCcampus Excursion can occur in either direction, and anatomists use directional terms to specify the type of excursion. During superior rotation, the glenoid cavity moves upward as the medial end of the scapular spine moves downward. Consulter l'annonce du vendeur pour avoir plus de dtails. Abduction, adduction, and circumduction. Without superior rotation of the scapula, the greater tubercle of the humerus would hit the acromion of the scapula, thus preventing any abduction of the arm above shoulder height. Flexion and extension. At the shoulder, the arm would need to flex and medially rotate. -Combines flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. Rotation of the neck or body is the twisting movement produced by the summation of the small rotational movements available between adjacent vertebrae. . Superior rotation of the scapula is thus required for full abduction of the upper limb. In cases of whiplash in which the head is suddenly moved backward and then forward, a patient may experience both hyperextension and hyperflexion of the cervical region. adj., adj excursive. The joints between the articular processes of adjacent vertebrae can contribute to which movement? Similarly, the hinge joint of the ankle only allows for dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot. This is a very important motion that contributes to upper limb abduction. DST will personally stand behind the warranty of any U Joints you buy from us so you'll never have to worry about keeping records or receipts incase an issue ever arose. Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. 1999-2023, Rice University. There are many types of movement that can occur at synovial joints (Table). Joint Effusion: What It Is, Symptoms, Treatment - Verywell Health Supination and pronation are movements of the forearm. joint: [noun] the point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. Inferior rotationoccurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of the glenoid cavity with upward movement of the medial end of the scapular spine. Types of Body Movements | Anatomy and Physiology I - Lumen Learning 129.06. Excursion Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary Flexion and extension movements are seen at the hinge, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints of the limbs (see Figure 9.5.1a-d). Refer to Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) as you go through this section. Fever, chills, malaise, and weakness (if an infection is involved) 2. The type of movement that can be produced at a synovial joint is determined by its . Movement types are generally paired, with one being the opposite of the other. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. Temporomandibular joint dysfunction | Radiology Reference Article citation tool such as, Authors: J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. Inferior rotation occurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of the glenoid cavity with upward movement of the medial end of the scapular spine. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation). There are many types of movement that can occur at synovial joints (Table 1). Figure4. Abduction and adduction movements are seen at condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints (seeFigure2). Rotation can also occur at the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Supination and pronation are movements of the forearm. Excursion is the side to side movement of the mandible. Abduction moves the limb laterally away from the midline of the body, while adduction is the opposing movement that brings the limb toward the body or across the midline. Dec 13, 2022 OpenStax. In the limbs, flexion decreases the angle between the bones (bending of the joint), while extension increases the angle and straightens the joint. Learn more. Alternatively, when set to a point just inside the allowable limit, this . Urban Dictionary: joint Movement types are generally paired, with one being the opposite of the other. The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate whether runners with certain biomechanical or clinical/anthropometrical characteristics sustain more running-related injuries than runners with other biomechanical or clinical/anthropometrical characteristics. Each flexor tendon's moment arm was . The skeleton provides the framework for muscles and gives the body its defined human shape. When the mandible moves to either the left or right, it's moving away from the body's midline, so it's called lateral excursion. noun A journey; specifically, a short journey, jaunt, or trip to some point for a special purpose, with the intention of speedy return: as, a pleasure excursion; a scientific excursion. Dfinition joint excursion | Dictionnaire anglais | Reverso Synovial joints allow the body a tremendous range of movements. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.